Writing A Term Paper

Writing a College Term Paper


By Joe Petrulionis

     Can you remember your third grade writing class? The teacher probably explained a thesis sentence as your central argument in the paper. It situated your argument and dictated the flow of the rest of your paper. An example of a good elementary school thesis statement might be "Running away, spilling a drink, and playing in the mud, the character Spot is constantly getting into trouble." Tucked into the very last sentence of the very first paragraph, this thesis sentence provided clarity and direction to your fascinating essay. Then, the next three paragraphs would each present a bit of evidence in support of the thesis. The fifth paragraph would conclude your essay, summing up the major points and restating your argument.
      You may remember the teacher applauding and doing cartwheels over your precious masterpiece. You followed his or her directions precisely, checked your spelling, underlined your thesis statement and organized each of your middle paragraphs in a triangular pattern, the topical point followed by the evidence. You may have even used some transition between paragraphs! Earning an "A+ with a gold star," you have probably been writing your essays this way ever since.

By Joey Petrulionis,     3^rd Grade

                      Trickster Spot: the Voiceless and Genderless Rebel at the Mercy of an Unreliable Narrator

In our reading textbook, the character named Spot appears in the written story three times. In all three appearances, Spot is getting into trouble with its master, Dick. For the illustrator, however, Spot is not a mischievous character. The puppy is pictured four times: once sitting quietly, another time sleeping, walking politely on a leash, and finally, chasing a ball. But the author has another Spot in mind. Running away, spilling a drink, and playing in the mud, the character Spot is constantly getting into trouble.

From the very first page, Spot is running away from his or her master. "See Spot run. Spot runs into the street. 'No Spot,' says Dick. 'Do not run into the street!'" A good dog would not run away from its master. A good dog would come back when called, or at least it should stop and look both ways before crossing the street.

               In addition to running away from Dick, Spot spills Father's drink while Father sits reading a newspaper. On page 9, Father comes home from work. "Father is tired. He worked hard today. Father sits. See him read. Spot sees Father. Spot wants milk. 'No Spot, the milk is for Father!' Milk flies. Newspapers fly. Spot flees. Father is angry."

Immediately after spilling Father's milk, Spot goes missing. Dick's good friend Jane decides to help find Spot. She is wearing her new yellow dress. After looking behind the house, under the car, and next to the tree, the two friends experience a fright. Something moves in the in the middle of a mud puddle. "What can it be? It has eyes. It has teeth. It has legs. It shakes. Jane says, 'It is Spot!’ Spot runs, Spot shakes. 'No Spot, do not jump on Jane!' Jane is sad. Look at Jane's new dress!"

Despite the way Spot is portrayed by the illustrator, Spot is a puppy which is always getting into trouble in the story. The dog runs away, even into a street. Then the puppy spills Father's milk. Finally, Jane's new dress gets muddied because Spot played in a puddle. Spot is certainly a troublemaker.

     If you remember this recipe for essay writing, so much the better for you! There will still be professors in your future who prefer this writing formula for several reasons. First, they want to be sure that college students understand that an essay should be organized to support an argument. They may want you to understand that evidence supports each point, and in turn, all points should defend your argument. By asking you to adhere to this simplistic formula, a teacher hopes to provide good practice for organizing an essay. Before you judge these professors too harshly, please keep in mind that teaching writing is difficult. Teaching someone to write is much like teaching someone to think. And grading someone else's writing is especially trying. Simplistic teachers often view complex arguments as disorganized. While complex thinkers may see such a formulaic style as overly simplistic. But there are times, like 3am, three days before your term paper is due, when you might be desperate for less of an artistic guide, and you may be seeking more of a “how to” bit of kind advice. If this is you, I recommend you go here. Next time, start earlier and then read the rest of my advice.
     But if you are still with me, if you see writing (even term papers) as artistic creations, then you will not be able to find a body of “generally acceptable practices.” Rules are for sports! So this leads to my first nougat of advice, "KNOW YOUR AUDIENCE." Read something written by the teacher who will be grading your paper. The course syllabus is a good start! Follow the advice given by that teacher. Write within the style dictated for that class. If you don't know, or can't tell, then ask. Once you have proven yourself, and once the professor is comfortable that you are capable of organizing an essay, most teachers will encourage you to explore more complex narrative structures and to develop your critical voice. But caution! There are some professors who still think that this formula is the one true way to write. When dealing with these zealots, I advise you to follow the formula! If all of their experiences with scholarly journals, participation in conferences, and reading book-length monographs have not changed their minds yet, you---an undergraduate student in their class---will certainly not prevail with your opinion. It is best that you use their course to practice the formula.
     In THIS class (you lucky devils), I will assume that you already know how to write the formulaic, five paragraph essay. Please remember that for my survey classes, history is not taught as a social science and philosophy is not taught as a build up to the one true doctrine. Instead, I present these courses as literary arts practiced within interpretive disciplines. I do this for pedagogical reasons, to help you become critical, emboldened, and less impressionable. If you wish to follow formulas, generally accepted principles, and simplistic approaches, then there are other courses and fields "out there" for you. Here, you will be encouraged to experiment with chronological organization and thematic explanation. I would like to see you add suspense to your writing by relaying a true story or idea, leaving the reader at a “cliff hanger” while you circle back to explain, and place well known historical characters accurately into rarely known situations. But please do not get me wrong. If you choose to place your thesis statement at the end of the first paragraph I will not count off. I urge you to do your research first, prior to concocting a thesis statement. Writing a narrative essay first will help you with this. In any event, consider how you can maintain the reader's suspense if you have already presented the essence of your argument. I hope to see an effort to improve your critical voice, your vocabulary, your narrative style, and your awareness of the emotional state of the reader. Grab the reader's attention in the first few words and do not ever let go. And your ability to present an argument, using evidence as support in a compelling and persuasive way is as important as the narrative. But, just like in teaching a class, you have to have their attention to persuade them.
     But refrain from writing fiction or passing on apocrypha and embellishment. Remember your historical and philosophical writing must be accurate and should describe real people in their correct and document-able situations. Provide your reader with evidence that you questioned your sources, compared the many versions of events, pointed out self-serving retrospection, and exposed polemical back biting. Still you must stake out your own position on the debates over "what happened next," and “why did he/she think that?” In short, I want you to become historians and philosophers for the duration of this class. Staying within the rules of accuracy and reality, I want you to produce history and philosophy. And history is text that tells the story of real people and accurate events in an interesting new way. Written philosophy is just text that critiques scholarly ideas. In order to know the accurate events, ideas and real people of your topic, you will conduct research.
     And this leads to my second nougat of advice. CONDUCT SYSTEMATIC RESEARCH. It is easier to tell a student to conduct research than it is to explain how to do it. In this course, you will be introduced to an important tool, the "Annotated Timeline." Create this timeline and it will grow as you read. Each date on your annotated timeline will have a one line description of an event and footnotes that will direct you back to your sources. Over the course of the course, your annotated timeline will become more valuable. It will help you keep your sources organized and hopefully it will become a habitual method for active reading. As you use the same annotated timeline for different courses—history and otherwise—you will begin to see connections between events studied in different courses and in far reaching geographies.
      When it is time to begin writing, this annotated timeline will jog your memory and will direct you back to the sources you reviewed for a particular event. It will also help you begin to see disagreements as you read other sources with alternate opinions.
      Quickly, you should appreciate that these differences of opinion, called "historical debates" by historians, arise because each writer relies on different sources. The reasons historians choose different sources is the "stuff" of historical reasoning. It is what makes history an interesting field of study, a workable approach to almost any other field of academic scholarship. When you reach this realization, that the sources are the foundation of all good history writing, then you will be well on your way to being a historian. Systematic research will help you deal with the multitude of sources you will encounter. Differences of opinion over ideas, called “philosophical debates,” are rarely solved or created by using different sources. In philosophy the arguments usually arise because the two debaters belong to different schools of philosophy. Often, to understand the argument, we have to study the systems of thinking that are endorsed by these different schools. In both history and philosophy, the real opportunities for breakthrough happen during these debates. The timeline is one way to track the progress made by the different sides in these all important debates.
      But there is a bigger advantage to keeping an annotated timeline. Once you begin tracking your reading, remaining alert for important dates, differences of opinion, errors and insights, at that very moment you begin to read critically. You are actively participating in the scholarly process, not passively running your eyes over pages.
      If you have ever caught yourself just reading along and thinking about something else; if you suddenly realize that you do not remember what the last paragraph was about, if reading history and philosophy is just "boring," then you are probably running your eyes over a page full of text, passively pretending to read. (Or, quite possibly, you may be reading poorly written prose). In this course, you will be encouraged to read critically, actively, and systematically. If you acquire these talents, you will find them invaluable in any academic subject; and your long life will be made more interesting.
      Once you have gone to the library and checked the on-line searchable indexes and databases to find the important secondary sources, your next step will be to review the journal articles and the scholarly books with an eye toward your topic. Before you begin reading in earnest, create an annotated bibliography of those sources that seem to be of interest to you. Briefly read the first paragraph or skim the introduction to see if the source will help you in your research. Create a one or two sentence abstract for your annotated bibliography. By now, you will have ordered the books you need, and you will have found the articles that touch on your topic.
      Next comes the fun part! Start early and read! ACTIVE READING is my third nougat of advice. First, re-read the introductions, prefaces, and the first paragraphs of each chapter. Use your annotated timeline to keep track of the chronology. Read deeply and closely when the author is dealing with your topic. Skim and skip quickly through the other parts. Look for contradictory information between the various readings and maintain your annotated timeline as you read. If your mind wanders, stand up, splash water in your face, have a cup of tea, and get back to it.
      Also, while you read keep an informal reading log. Write down questions, insights, ideas, and page numbers. Keep this reading log on one or two pieces of paper folded into the book. As an additional benefit, your reading log makes a great book mark!
     Most important, good reading takes practice! You will find that your retention improves with each book or journal article you read. As you practice active reading, you will also become a closer, more alert, reader. You will remember more of what you have read, and you will probably find more time to spend reading. It will become one of your most enjoyable pastimes!
      Then early in the semester, set a date sometime before mid-terms to begin writing. Enter this date, in ink, into your calendar, as you would a holiday or a vacation. As that day approaches, tell yourself how much you have to say on the topic and how much fun it will be to write the paper. Carve a special writing weekend out of your busy schedule, clean off your desk, prepare your timeline and anticipate the project.
      On this "begin writing" date (and here we need a trumpet fanfare followed by a drum roll) just begin writing. Even if you are not ready, if your books have not all come in yet, if your computer is on the blink, if the idea is not there yet, if you "just don't feel like it today, man," if you have no idea what you will write about, still, JUST WRITE! (Yes that was the fourth nougat of advice.) Turn off your phone, sit down, and begin writing no matter where you are in the research effort. The first few words are the hardest, but if you start writing it will happen. If you don't know what to write, start with the word "During." Re-read your informal reading logs and then write until you begin to have several ideas. (You will know it when it happens). And once several ideas start flowing, then stop writing and go for a quick walk. Yes, a walk, “like outside.” Take someone with you, and explain your idea to your walking companion. When you get back from your walk, your blood should be pumping and you will be itching to write. Instead, resist the temptation to write and begin blueprinting.
      "Uh, Joe, did you mean outlining?"
      No, I mean BLUEPRINTING. (Yep, fifth nougat). This is where the design aspect of good writing happens, and we all approach it differently. Here is the "art" part of the phrase "Literary Art." Until you develop your own methods, you might try one of mine. Take out several pages of blank paper and write these heading words: "Audience," "Opening," "Debate," "My Position," "My Evidence," and "To Summarize."
       Then returning to your best idea, the one you polished during your walk, fill in the blank spaces after the heading words. For instance, beside "Audience" write the name of the teacher who will grade the essay and any of that teacher's "hot buttons." Hint: If I am that teacher, write "Joe Petrulionis: likes a good story, likes sophisticated vocabulary (word choice as a sort of seasoning to the sauce) and loves footnotes; dislikes unsubstantiated speculation, strongly dislikes theoretical jargon when it is unnecessary or when it is used to mask a simplistic insight, and he hates the use of unquestioned sources.”
       While on the topic of particular teachers and their writing preferences, let’s handle the thesis statement. The thesis statement is the point you are trying to support in your paper, so a thesis statement is not optional. A good thesis might be your argument that a particular event happened in a certain way. But please do not create a “who cares” thesis that depends on distinguishing one definition of a word from its other meanings. And no thesis statement begins with the term “I believe…” These papers will not be professions of faith, but marshaling of evidence. As an experiment, try to add one sentence to your paper’s thesis statement that begins with the word “So...” If there is no “so what” please consider rethinking your thesis. This is your chance to think, don’t waste it. In fact, as you will see from a close reading of this article, it is always a good idea to conduct most of your research prior to devising a thesis statement. This is why I may ask you to disclose the historical question you are addressing, or for an early glimpse at your annotated bibliography, but I will never ask you to turn in your thesis statement.
       So, we turn back to the “blueprinting” project. Under "Opening," write one or two phrases that will remind you to begin your paper at a strong moment. I would recommend something like, "Harriet Tubman clicks back the hammer on her revolver and says 'You will either walk on to freedom with me, brother, or die here, a slave.'" Pick one defining moment that can be exciting, surprising, agitating, illuminating, or even confusing. Get the audience's attention with a good opening. Avoid humor, silliness, sarcasm, crudeness, and pedestrian construction. Never present a fictional episode as history. If the Queen of France scratched her fingernails on a blackboard to get the attention of the court, be prepared to footnote the source. Who saw it and where is it reported?
       Next to the word "Debate," write a short description of the recent disagreements published by other historians and philosophers. Present a fair summary of those scholars who have already written on the subject. Be polite, fair and accurate, even when describing those arguments you intend to debunk. You will be surprised at how much better their arguments will seem to you after you spend more time on the topic.
       Next to the words "My Position," write out your argument; you can call this your "thesis" if you like. Feel free to write it in sentence fragments or in several full sentences. Just trace out your opinion on the subject.
       Then, beside the words "My Evidence" you will list all of the reasons you have developed the opinion you hold. You will rearrange these later. For now, just get them written down. Then leave the "To Summarize" section blank.
       If you have followed this method so far, you will have created 1) an annotated timeline, 2) an annotated bibliography, and 3) a blueprint. Sitting with these three items, focus in on your "My Evidence" section of the blueprint. Spend some time rearranging this section into a logical, compelling argument. Insert your sources for this evidence. This will become the most important part of your paper. So spend some extra time getting the pieces of evidence into a logical order.
       Now, I would bet you think you are ready to create an outline, right? Please do not create the outline before the first draft. Using only your blueprint, your annotated timeline and your annotated bibliography, write the first full draft of your paper. Don't spend too much time on stylistics. Get the ideas down on paper for now. Then create an outline of that first draft. By writing the first draft before the outline, the outline becomes a tool for checking the organization of your paper. For each paragraph, write a short phrase or sentence that describes the function of that paragraph and the evidence it contains. Once complete, your outline offers an after-the-fact appraisal of the organization structure of your own paper.
       At this point, you will have a list of further questions to research. You may need to go back to your sources, consider new references, toy with new approaches to narration, make modifications to your critical voice in places or even reconsider the basic structure of your entire argument. Take a few days to a couple of weeks to reconsider these items. During this writing break, continue your reading. You may notice that your reading during this writing break is the most alert reading you ever do. You have already become somewhat acquainted with the historical debates, the chronology and the characters involved. Now you can pay attention to the authors’ arguments and evidence.
      Several weeks later, you will be able to return to your original draft much more informed. And you will be able to read the draft with a fresh, more objective, attitude. While revising your draft, allow yourself to redraft entire sections of the paper, add new evidence or even change your argument. This is the time to be bold and aggressive! After you have created a much improved skeleton of your argument, then you will go back and make the writing beautiful. Look for opportunities to tighten the writing. Jettison weak verbs (i.e., was, is, are) and remove passive sentence structures (i.e., never write that “the active voice is preferred”). Look for word choices that better express your meaning, and keep an open mind toward clearer ways to explain complex issues. Of course, you should discover any spelling and grammar errors during this phase as well.
     Then you will have created a final draft of your paper. If you have a friend who owes you a favor, or can be enticed to assist you in your project, read your draft out loud to your friend. Awkward sentences stick out when a paragraph is read aloud. And your friend's opinions can be valuable. Make sure to consider the critical opinions as well as the praise. And be appreciative of both. A good critic is as valuable as a good friend.
      Then you are finally ready to revise the final draft into your final paper. To revise a final draft, just read the most recent version, line for line, word for word, about a million times. Two million times would be better. Look for spelling and grammar problems. Consider the organization of your thoughts. Re-check the page numbers in your citations. Make sure your paper follows the guidelines set by The Chicago Manual of Style. (Use the 16^th edition or newer.)
       It is this final paper that will be turned in to me. Turn in one paper copy and send one to me as an email attachment. I will reply when I have received the attachment. If I have not replied, I have probably not received your paper. Put another copy of the paper away somewhere safe. Hide it where you will find it in a few years. You will be amazed at how well it was written. You will also recall—then--how much fun you had writing it!