Systematic Research For Undergraduates

Systematic Research for Undergraduates: Harvey and Ron

By Joe Petrulionis

     A big part of your grade in most college classes will result from the term paper. If you are a typical freshman, these assignments will not intimidate you. You have probably been writing term papers since junior high school. But papers written for high school teachers were intended for different purposes. No one in high school expected your term paper to exhibit evidence of research into a going field of scholarship. It was usually enough if your footnotes and bibliography were correctly formatted, and if you had no egregious grammar or spelling errors.

     Welcome to higher education! As undergraduates, you will still not be expected to write papers causing major impacts on the field. One semester is inadequate time for researching and writing a scholarly paper. And even if you had the time, your generalist education has probably not equipped you to explore new territory at an advanced level. You will find that there are few opportunities to publish papers that are simple summaries of other people’s research and conclusions. Book reports, abstracts, opinion pieces, and “state of the field” summaries are usually published by people with enough experience that they can distinguish the new efforts from previous projects. So here’s where you should be saying to yourself, “so what!”

     Why not begin every college project with a professional attitude anyway? Consider yourself engaged in the emerging scholarship. Do your best with every term paper, and strive to improve your writing and research techniques with each project. Some undergraduates will discover the intense pleasure that arises from writing a competent analysis of an issue or problem. Many, perhaps most, will never experience this reward. To quote a Philosopher-friend of mine, “ideas are not for everybody.”

     Just in case you turn out to be someone destined for grad school, advanced education in an academic field, or a professional level career, you might consider using your undergraduate term papers as opportunities to practice research and writing skills that will help you along the way. Pretend that you are working on a paper that will be presented to seasoned scholars who are themselves doing important work. Assume that they are experts in the topic you will select. Since this possibility may one day become a reality, you will be better prepared to cope with the different magnitude of expectations that you will encounter in scholarly journals and academic presses. And in the meantime, your undergraduate professors will notice that you are aiming for a more distant target. This extra effort will impress and flatter them, and you will notice that you receive mentoring and higher expectations, when most of your peers are receiving only assessment, instruction, and encouragement.

     Let’s look at the approach taken by two undergraduate students. The first we’ll call Harvey Minimalist. We all know a Harvey; every undergraduate class has several of him, in all genders. Harvey rarely makes A’s as his final grade in academic classes, but he usually does not fail, either. He is always looking to do just the least amount of work possible to get a grade that he considers acceptable. Happy with a B, he will gladly take a C. Harvey knows that with grades like his, he is probably not destined for grad school. More likely, Harvey will graduate in five years with a high C average. He expects to never enter a class room again, after this degree. Unfortunately, he is probably right.

     For Harvey, being cool, quiet, and dispassionate is more important than getting good grades and succeeding. He will get around to almost every assignment, and will turn something in. He is very careful to never raise his hand in class. Any reader can see that he spent the least amount of time and effort possible.

     Note: your Professors know the difference between Harvey and someone who is destined for grad school.

     How does Harvey approach the term paper? Just like most everything else in his life, with an eye to the least effort possible. Effort and enthusiasm are not like a flashlight; you can not turn them on and off when needed. Harvey picks his topic by finding several articles or books and reflecting on their arguments. Not a cheat, just lazy, he would never consider plagiarizing. So Harvey provides ample footnotes from these sources to show that he read them. He might make a Google search or two for background. And he starts working on the term paper just two weeks before it is due.

     After reading sources he can easily find in the closest library, Harvey makes an outline. During this outlining process, Harvey devises a simplistic thesis statement that can be supported by the sources he has found. Then he writes the paper in one week. For most classes, this effort earns Harvey a C. And because he attends regularly, and turns in most assignments, Harvey usually earns a C+ or a B- for his final grade.

     Harvey is not a tragic figure. He is not in line for our sympathy. Deserving a D or an F, he; instead, usually gets C’s. The tragic figure in the class, Ron Would, usually sits three or four rows in front of Harvey. Ron starts his term paper on the day he gets the syllabus. He reads everything he can find in the library on the topic, he highlights almost every word of his textbook, and knows his professors’ office hours by heart. Ron is a hard worker, and would do almost any amount of reading, note taking, revising, and extra credit. But Ron’s grades hover between an A- and B+, too much in the B+ category to get into a good graduate program. Unfortunately, Ron is a tragic figure. He would do the research, and might write an insightful, competent paper if he had ever learned to approach his research in a systematic way. But while most classes require research, few professors take the time to explain how to accomplish it.

     In this course, you will learn one method of systematic research. There are many workable approaches, but in this course we will practice one. This method is comprised of steps you can take to insure that you do not turn out like Ron Would. No amount of instruction will help Harvey. Follow these steps, commit them to habit, and soon your time will be more productively spent, your reading will become easier, you will retain more of what you have read, and your term papers and longer projects will be more informed.

1. Work from a general topical area, focus it as you read.

2. Evaluate sources initially in their abstracted forms,

(i.e., American History and Life, or Historical Abstracts, etc.)

3. Order, borrow, or acquire the sources early. Read them as they arrive.

4. Map out the geography of the events, and the sociopolitical context of the ideas.

5. Keep an Annotated Bibliography from the beginning of your research.

6. Maintain an “annotated timeline” for your project as you read.

7. Keep a “reading log” for each book or journal article.

8. Follow the writing advice in “How to Write a Term Paper.”

These steps are more fully described below.

1. Work from a general topical area to a specific focus. Start with a broad question about an event, person, place, concept, etc. Don’t worry about a thesis yet. How could you have a thesis if you have not even begun your research? As you actively read within your general topical area, you may notice the kernels of ideas sprouting at the back of your mind. Some of these ideas may take root in more specific interests you will develop within the topical areas. And some of these ideas will grow into insights. Like history itself, these insights are not already “out there” for you to find, they happen when you, the historian, get there, survey the terrain, and apply your mind and individual experience to the events under consideration. This interaction is the source of the insights that form the basis of every good history essay.

There is very little pain involved in this process, but you may notice a tingling sensation just before the idea morphs into an insight.

2. Spend a weekend in the library searching for professional secondary sources that address your general topical area. At first, you will be using abstracts of scholarly books and journal articles. Use data bases and references such as American History and Life, Historical Abstracts, and “JStor.” Don’t try to read your sources while selecting them. In the beginning you are trying to filter through mountains of sources to arrive at a small handful of secondary sources that will provide context enough to take the next step. Your reading will come later. For now, read abstracts, book reviews and summaries. Put all of the sources you think might be helpful into your own project Bibliography. Keep track of call numbers, and the full reference/citation information. Since you will have to put them into the correct format ultimately, you might as well cite these sources correctly at this stage of the project.

In other words, don’t limit your project to the sources easily found. Find the sources that will make your project better informed. Don’t look for your wallet where the light is good, look for it where you dropped it.

3. Use the Library to your advantage. But get there quickly. Penn State Altoona’s Inter-Library-Loan department is among the best anywhere. They can find almost anything you will require. But you must do the work to find out what you want. And they can’t get everything in three weeks. Start your research early! When you get stumped, ask a reference librarian. These amazing people have undergone rigorous education in the art of finding, preserving, and interpreting information. You will discover that there is always one on duty at the Penn State Library, and that they are the scholar’s best friend. Order everything that you think will inform your research into the project. As these sources dribble in, you will conduct your initial readings.

4. If applicable, draw a map of the geography involved in your topic. Know the spaces in which events occurred. If you are writing about ideas, know the political, cultural, and biographical context for those ideas.

5. As you read the sources, read efficiently. Read the Preface, and the first and last paragraph of each chapter. Read the final chapter. Get a good sense of the author’s argument and major points. Pay attention to the sources used by each work you cite. Expand your own bibliography to include these sources after you have seen their abstracts and determined that they will help your project as well. Then write your own annotations for your project bibliography. Once you have described each of the sources, you will begin calling this project bibliography by the working title, “Annotated Bibliography.” Once the Annotated Bibliography is complete (and most of your sources have been received) go back through them in more detail. Read those parts of your sources that touch on your topic. Skim those sections that don’t. Keep a one or two page “Reading Log” folded into each book or journal article. Make notes of items for further research, your own insights, and ideas you would like to use in your paper. Write down the page numbers and reading notes here. Pay particular attention to points of controversy between your sources.

Quickly, you will appreciate that these differences of opinion, called "historical debates" by historians, arise because each writer relies on different sources. The reasons historians choose different sources is the "stuff" of historical reasoning. It is what makes history the most interesting field of study, a workable approach to almost any other field of academic scholarship. When you reach this realization, that the sources are the foundation of all good history writing, then you will be well on your way to being a historian. Systematic research will help you deal with the multitude of sources you will encounter.

5b. An optional step for undergraduates, but one that is mandatory for graduate students: immerse yourself in the related primary sources. See for yourself how this evidence has been interpreted and handled by those who have come before you. Do not replicate mistakes and misinterpretations of past scholars. Of course, for those of you looking into Plato, this might mean that you need to brush up on your Ancient Greek!

6. Maintain an “Annotated Timeline” as you read. This will help you keep track of the chronology. But there is a bigger advantage to keeping an annotated timeline. Once you begin tracking your reading, remaining alert for important dates, differences of opinion, errors and insights, at that very moment you begin to read critically. You are actively participating in the historical and philosophical processes, not passively running your eyes over their pages.

If you have ever caught yourself just reading along and thinking about something else; if you suddenly realize that you do not remember what the last paragraph was about, if reading history and philosophy is "boring," then you are probably running your eyes over a page full of text, passively pretending to read. (Or, quite possibly, you may be reading poorly written work). Unfortunately, there is no law that says historical insights and philosophical ideas can only be originated by astute writers. Sometimes, you just have to suffer through it. In these cases, you can be the translator. In this course, you will be encouraged to read critically, actively, and systematically. If you acquire these talents, you will find them invaluable in any academic subject; and your long life will be made more interesting.

7. Next comes the fun part! Now you have a good idea of the sources you will be using. You have skimmed them, annotated them and begun to record your own reading log. Carve a bubble of time out of your busy schedule. Sit down and re-read those sources that will be the most important supports to your argument. By now you must have some ideas and insights that you suspect may form the basis of an informed paper. But during this reading phase, enjoy your reading. If your mind wanders, stand up, splash water in your face, have a cup of tea, and get back to it. On your reading logs, write down questions, insights, ideas, and page numbers. Keep this reading log on one or two pieces of paper folded into the book. As an additional benefit, your reading log makes a great book mark!

Most important, good reading takes practice! You will find that your retention improves with each book or journal article you read. As you practice active reading, you will also become a closer, more alert, reader. You will remember more of what you have read, and you will probably find more time to spend reading. It will become one of your most enjoyable pastimes!

8. Now--finally-- you are ready to begin the writing process! Please see my advice on writing a term paper.